On the afternoon of December 22, 2024, the 36th lecture in the series of Buddhist Studies at Peking University was held in Room B112 of the Department of Philosophy. The theme of the lecture was Exploring the Origins of Mahāyāna from the Perspective of Observation. The lecture was delivered by Professor Minowa Kenryo(蓑輪顕量) from the Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology in the University of Tokyo, and was chaired by Professor Wang Song(王頌) from the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Peking University.
Among the attendees were Professor Zhang Fenglei, from the Renmin University of China; Associate Professor Sakamoto Dosho from the Eizan Institute of Japanese; Associate Professor Hasegawa Yuho from the Eizan Institute of Japanese; Associate Professor Wang Junqi from Renmin University of China; Associate Professor Shi Jingpeng from Minzu University of China; Associate Professor Zhao Wen from Nankai University; Assistant Professor Chen Ruixuan from Peking University; Assistant Researcher Sun Haike from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences; Lecturer Liu Chang from China University of Political Science and Law; as well as some students from Peking University and Renmin University of China who attended as auditors.
The origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism has been a topic of considerable interest among researchers. Professor Minowa first introduced two influential historical theories: the theory of the origin of Mahāyāna from the Mahāsaṃghika school, proposed by Maeda Eun, and the theory of the origin of Mahāyāna from the lay Buddhism , proposed by Hirakawa Akira . However, as research has advanced, these two theories have gradually been abandoned by scholars. The most recent theory is the Mahāyāna sutra origin theory, put forward by Shimoda Masahiro. According to this theory, the establishment of Mahāyāna sutras triggered the Mahāyāna Buddhist movement, which ultimately led to the formation of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
Professor Minowa agrees with this perspective but argues that Shimoda’s theory does not fully address the question why the Mahāyāna sutras were created. Given that the earliest Mahāyāna scriptures are the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, this question can also be reframed as: Why were the Prajñāpāramitā sutras composed? Professor Minowa suggests that the origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism can be understood from the perspective of the spiritual path, particularly through the concept of vipassanā.
Professor Minowa referenced the research of Nakamura Hajime, who pointed out that the method of practice discovered by the Buddha was initially expressed using the term sati (mindfulness). Shortly thereafter, the term satipaṭṭhāna(establishment of mindfulness) emerged as a specialized term and gradually became established. Later on, the terms samatha (calm) and vipassanā (observation) began to be used in tandem and became fixed terms in Buddhist practice.
In the time of the Buddha, the term sati was used in a very simple manner. In the Suttanipāta, specifically in the Aṭṭhakavagga, meditation-related concepts were expressed using the phrase sadā sato, meaning "always maintaining attention." As time progressed, the meaning of sati gradually evolved to encompass two aspects of the mind: "directing attention toward [something]" and "fully understanding." It is important to note here whether "fully understanding" is accompanied by verbal processes or linguistic activity.
Professor Minowa then introduced the meditation methods described in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta. The practice initially focuses on a single sense organ and the awareness of the objects it perceives. Once the practitioner becomes proficient, this focus gradually expands to encompass all six senses. Regarding whether this process is accompanied by language, Professor Minowa turned his attention to the Prajñāpāramitā sutras.
The Prajñāpāramitā sutras place great emphasis on the role of the mind, referred to as prajñā. Prajñā is understood as nirvikalpajñāna(non-discriminating wisdom). To explain what "non-discriminating wisdom" means, Professor Minowa provided an example. When a person sees an apple, his mind first generates an image of the apple through the eye, which is accurate and undifferentiated from other objects. Since there is no discrimination in this cognitive process, it can be described as "non-discriminating wisdom." Only afterward does the person distinguish the apple from other objects. Then, concepts and labels are applied, entering the stage where language is used to grasp the object. Following this, various forms of conceptualization and mental processes, such as reflection or vitakka (thought), arise.
This concept of "non-discriminating wisdom" has also been explained in the field of modern cognitive neuroscience. According to the theory of Cognitive Segmentation proposed by Kumano Hiroaki, when cognition is finely segmented, a state of non-discrimination naturally arises. From the perspective of meditation, during continuous practice of mindfulness, the mind approaches a state of cognitive overload. To prevent this, cognitive functions cease to operate. In other words, the discriminating function ceases, and the mind returns to the initial state of "non-discriminating wisdom." Professor Minowa believes that the practice described in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta is a practice that does not rely on language to grasp the object.
In the Yogācāra school, vipassanā is interpreted as "establishing the characteristics of phenomena." Establishing the characteristics of phenomena can be understood as using language to define the function and nature of the dharma. Therefore, this is a practice that grasps objects through language. This method continues to be transmitted in present-day Theravāda Buddhism. A representative text is the Visuddhimagga. In this type of practice, which is based on doctrinal texts, much emphasis is placed on the sequence of the practice. While the method is clear, it is not an easy task and requires significant time and effort to master through prolonged practice.
Professor Minowa proposes the following hypothesis regarding the origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism: Initially, there were people who valued the meditation methods advocated in texts such as the Satipaṭṭhānasutta. Over time, doctrinal texts were composed, and more people began to value the meditation methods described in these texts. However, as the practices outlined in these texts were extensively practiced, they ironically made enlightenment seem increasingly distant. As a result, those who valued the practices as presented in the classical scriptures reappeared. They once again emphasized the importance of the scriptures, seeing them as a universal path to enlightenment for all people. Their method of observation was also one that did not rely on language to understand the kammaṭṭhāna, nor did it strictly follow a fixed sequence. Instead, they emphasized expanding mindfulness across the six senses. This can be seen as a viewpoint advocating a return to the approach of the Buddha himself.
Finally, Professor Minowa shared some of his findings from field studies in Thailand, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. He explained that in contemporary Theravāda Buddhist regions, there are two types of monasteries. One type is located in the forests, where the emphasis is placed on texts such as the Satipaṭṭhānasutta, Ānāpānasati Sutta, Aśubhāprayukta, and Mettā. These monasteries typically do not follow a fixed order of practice, and they advocate for an immediate understanding of various aspects of practice from the outset. In contrast, the other type consists of large monasteries located on the outskirts of cities, where texts like the Visuddhimagga are emphasized, with a focus on the gradual path of practice, from samatha to vipassanā. The two meditation models discussed in this lecture also reflect these distinctions.
Professor Wang Song remarked that Professor Minowa’s lecture combined both textual analysis and fieldwork findings, making the content rich and thought-provoking. Following the lecture, there was a lively discussion between the participants and Professor Minowa, during which he further elaborated on and clarified the meditation methods discussed in the Da Zhidu Lun. At the end of the event, Professor Minowa took a group photo with the attending faculty and students, marking the successful conclusion of the lecture.
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